How Much of a Car Battery Can Be Recycled

Recycling Li-ion.svg

Battery recycling is a recycling activity that aims to reduce the number of batteries being disposed as municipal solid waste. Batteries contain a number of heavy metals and toxic chemicals and disposing of them by the same process as regular household waste has raised concerns over soil contamination and water pollution.[1]

Battery recycling by type [edit]

Most types of batteries can be recycled. However, some batteries are recycled more readily than others, such as lead–acid automotive batteries (nearly 90% are recycled) and button cells (because of the value and toxicity of their chemicals).[2] Rechargeable nickel–cadmium (Ni-Cd), nickel metal hydride (Ni-MH), lithium-ion (Li-ion) and nickel–zinc (Ni-Zn), can also be recycled. There is currently no cost-neutral recycling option available for disposable alkaline batteries, though consumer disposal guidelines vary by region.[3]

Lead–acid batteries [edit]

Lead-acid batteries include but are not limited to: car batteries, golf cart batteries, UPS batteries, industrial fork-lift batteries, motorcycle batteries, and commercial batteries. These can be regular lead–acid, sealed lead–acid, gel type, or absorbent glass mat batteries. These are recycled by grinding them, neutralizing the acid, and separating the polymers from the lead.{[4] The recovered materials are used in a variety of applications, including new batteries.

Recycling the lead from batteries.

The lead in a lead–acid battery can be recycled. Elemental lead is toxic and should therefore be kept out of the waste stream.

Lead–acid batteries collected by an auto parts retailer for recycling.

The casing of a Lead–acid battery is often made of either polypropylene or ABS, which can also be recycled, although there are significant limitations on recycling plastics.

Many cities offer battery recycling services for lead–acid batteries. In some jurisdictions, including U.S. states and Canadian provinces, a refundable deposit is paid on batteries. This encourages recycling of old batteries instead of abandonment or disposal with household waste. Businesses that sell new car batteries may also collect used batteries (or be required to do so by law) for recycling.

A battery-industry promotional group, the Battery Council, says that about 99% of lead from used batteries in the United States is reclaimed.[5] [ dubious – discuss ] [ better source needed ]

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), under various administrations, Republican and Democrat, has reported lesser and varying levels of lead-acid battery recycling, and generally reported that varying economics and regulatory requirements have contributed to rates varying between 60% and 95% since 1982.[6] [7]

Nevertheless, in October 2020, near the end of the Trump administration, the EPA posted the statement that "In 2018, the estimated amount of recycled battery lead was about 99 percent," without explicitly citing the source of the estimate, but indirectly indicating involvement of industry sources.[8]

According to a 1992 EPA Superfund report, lead batteries account for about 80% of the lead used in the United States, of which about 60% is reclaimed during times of low lead prices, but more in times of high lead prices; it reported that 50% of the nation's lead needs are filled from recycled lead.[7]

Lead is a highly toxic substance, and processing it can result in pollution and contamination of people, resulting in long-term health problems and even disability.[9] [10] According to one ranking, lead-acid battery recycling is, by far, the most deadly industrial process, globally, in terms of Disability-adjusted life years lost -- costing between 2,000,000 and 4,800,000 estimated lost years of individual human life.[11]

Lead contamination of neighborhoods has resulted from the process of recycling batteries. In 1992, the EPA reported 29 lead-recycling sites were on the EPA's Superfund clean-up list, 22 of them on their "National Priority List"[7]

Silver oxide batteries [edit]

Used most frequently in watches, toys, and some medical devices, silver oxide batteries contain a small amount of mercury. Most jurisdictions regulate their handling and disposal to reduce the discharge of mercury into the environment.[ citation needed ] Silver oxide batteries can be recycled to recover the mercury.[12]

Lithium ion batteries [edit]

Lithium-ion batteries and lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) batteries often contain among other useful metals high-grade copper and aluminium in addition to – depending on the active material – transition metals cobalt and nickel as well as rare earths. To prevent a future shortage of cobalt, nickel, and lithium and to enable a sustainable life cycle of these technologies, recycling processes for lithium batteries are needed.[13] These processes have to regain not only cobalt, nickel, copper, and aluminium from spent battery cells, but also a significant share of lithium. Other potentially valuable and recoverable materials are graphite and manganese. Recycling processes today recover approximately 25% to 96% of the materials of a lithium-ion battery cell.[14] [15] In order to achieve this goal, several steps are combined into complex process chains, while ensuring safety.[16] [17]

These steps are:[16]

  • Deactivation or discharging of the battery (especially in case of batteries from electric vehicles)
  • Disassembly of battery systems (especially in case of batteries from electric vehicles)
  • Mechanical processes (including crushing, sorting, and sieving processes)[17]
  • Electrolyte recovery[18]
  • Hydrometallurgical processes
  • Pyrometallurgical processes

Specific dangers associated with lithium-ion battery recycling processes include electrical, chemical, and thermal dangers, and their potential interactions.[16] A complicating factor is the water sensitivity: lithium hexafluorophosphate, a possible electrolyte material, reacts with water to form hydrofluoric acid; cells are often immersed in a solvent to prevent this. Once removed, the jelly rolls are separated and the materials removed by ultrasonic agitation, leaving the electrodes ready for melting and recycling.

Pouch cells are easier to recycle to salvage copper despite significant safety issues.

As of 2019[update], the recycling of Li-Ion batteries in most cases does not extract lithium since lithium-ion battery technology continuously changes and processes to recycle these batteries can thus be outdated in a couple of years.[19] Extraction of lithium from old batteries is five times more expensive than mined lithium.[20] However, lithium extraction is done on a small scale (by some companies).[14] [21] [22] [23] [15] [24] [25] [26] The thermodynamic model is being developed to optimize the lithium extraction; thus, lithium is recycled with all the other metals in one step with less cost.[27] A critical part of recycling economics is the value of the recovered cobalt. Manufacturers working to remove cobalt from their products might produce the unintended consequence of reducing recycling.[28]

A new approach is to maintain the cathode's crystalline structure, eliminating the significant energy expense of recreating it.[28]

Energy saving and effective recycling solutions for lithium-ion batteries can reduce the carbon footprint of the production of lithium-ion batteries significantly.[15] [29]

Battery composition by type [edit]

Italics designates button cell types.
Bold designates secondary types.
All figures are percentages; due to rounding they may not add up to exactly 100.

Type[30] Fe Mn Ni Zn Hg Li Ag Cd Co Al Pb Other KOH Paper Plastic Alkali C Acids Water Other
Alkaline 24.8 22.3 0.5 14.9 1.3 1 2.2 5.4 3.7 10.1 14
Zinc-carbon 16.8 15 19.4 0.1 0.8 0.7 4 6 9.2 12.3 15.2
Lithium 50 19 1 2 7 2 19
Mercury-oxide 37 1 1 14 31 2 3 1 3 7
Zinc-air 42 35 1 4 4 1 10 3
Lithium 60 18 1 3 3 2 13
Alkaline 37 23 1 11 0.6 6 2 2 6 14
Silver oxide 42 2 2 9 0.4 31 4 2 1 0.5 2 4
Nickel-cadmium 35 22 15 10 2 5 11
NiMH 20 1 35 1 4 10 9 4 8 8
Li-ion 22 3 18 5 11 13 28
Lead–acid 65 4 10 16 5

Battery recycling by location [edit]

Battery recycling is an international industry, with many nations exporting their used or spent lead-acid batteries (ULABs or SLABs) to other nations for recycling. Consequently, it can be difficult to get accurate analyses of individual nations' exact rate of domestic recycling.[10] [31]

Further, in many countries, lead-acid battery recycling (chiefly from automobiles and motorcycles) is commonly done informally by individuals or informal enterprises, with little or no formal record-keeping, nor effective regulatory oversight.[10]

ULABs and SLABs are generally designated as "hazardous waste" and subject to relevant safety, storage, handling and transport regulations, though those vary from country to country. A multilateral international agreement, the Basel Convention, officially governs all transboundary movements of hazardous waste for recovery or disposal, among the 172 signatory countries. (The U.S. is not a party, but has alternate arrangements with the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and with Canada and with Mexico (where it ships many ULABs and SLABs for recycling[10]).[31]

4.5-Volt, D, C, AA, AAA, AAAA, A23, 9-Volt, CR2032, and LR44 cells are all recyclable in most countries

Several sizes of button and coin cell. They are all recyclable in the UK and Ireland.

Country Return percentage
2002[32] 2012
Switzerland 61% 73%
Belgium 59% 63%
Sweden 55% 60%
Germany 39% 44%
Austria 44%
Netherlands 32%
United Kingdom 32%
France 16%
Finland 15% 40%[33]
Canada 3% 5.6%

* Figures for Q1 and Q2 2012.[34]

European Union [edit]

A battery recycling station at a bus stop in Madrid.

In 2006, the EU passed the Battery Directive, one of the aims of which is a higher rate of battery recycling. The EU directive states that at least 25% of all the EU's used batteries must be collected by 2012, and rising to no less than 45% by 2016, of which at least 50% must be recycled.[32]

Channel Islands [edit]

In early 2009, Guernsey took the initiative by setting up the Longue Hougue recycling facility, which, among other functions, offers a drop-off point for used batteries so they can be recycled off-island. The resulting publicity meant that a lot of people complied with the request to dispose of batteries responsibly.

United Kingdom [edit]

From April 2005 to March 2008, the UK non-governmental body WRAP conducted trials of battery recycling methods around the UK.[35] The methods tested were: Kerbside, retail drop-off, community drop-off, postal, and hospital and fire station trials. The kerbside trials collected the most battery mass, and were the most well-received and understood by the public. The community drop-off containers that were spread around local community areas were also relatively successful in terms of mass of batteries collected. The lowest performing were the hospital and fire service trials (although these served their purpose very well for specialized battery types like hearing aid and smoke alarm batteries). Retail drop off trials were by volume the second most effective method but one of the least well received and used by the public. Both the kerbside and postal trials received the highest awareness and community support.[36]

Household batteries can be recycled in the UK at council recycling sites as well as at some shops and shopping centres, e.g. Dixons, Currys, The Link and PC World. [37]

A scheme started in 2008 by a large retail company allowed household batteries to be posted free of charge in envelopes available at their shops. This scheme was cancelled at the request of the Royal Mail because of hazardous industrial battery waste being sent as well as household batteries.[38]

An EU directive on batteries that came into force in 2009 means producers must pay for the collection, treatment, and recycling of batteries. This has yet to be ratified into UK law however, so there is currently no real incentive for producers to provide the necessary services.[39] [40]

From 1 February 2010, batteries can be recycled anywhere the "Be Positive" sign appears. Shops and online retailers that sell more than 32 kilograms of batteries a year must offer facilities to recycle batteries. This is equivalent to one pack of four AA batteries a day. Shops that sell this amount must by law provide recycling facilities as of 1 February 2010.[41]

In Great Britain an increasing number of shops (Argos, Homebase, B&Q, Tesco, and Sainsbury's) are providing battery return boxes and cylinders for their customers.[42] [43]

North America [edit]

The rechargeable battery industry has formed the Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (RBRC), which operates a battery recycling program called Call2Recycle throughout the United States and Canada.[44] [45] RBRC provides businesses with prepaid shipping containers for rechargeable batteries of all types while consumers can drop off batteries at numerous participating collection centers. It claims that no component of any recycled battery eventually reaches a landfill. Other programs, such as the Big Green Box program, offer a recycling option for all chemistries, including primary batteries such as alkaline and primary lithium.

A study estimated battery recycling rates in Canada based on RBRC data.[46] In 2002, it wrote, the collection rate was 3.2%. This implies that 3.2% of rechargeable batteries were recycled, and the rest were thrown in the trash. By 2005, it concluded, the collection rate had risen to 5.6%.

In 2009, Kelleher Environmental updated the study. The update estimates the following. "Collection rate values for the 5 [and] 15-year hoarding assumptions respectively are: 8% to 9% for NiCd batteries; 7% to 8% for NiMH batteries; and 45% to 72% for lithium ion and lithium polymer batteries combined. Collection rates through the [RBRC] program for all end of life small sealed lead acid (SLA) consumer batteries were estimated at 10% for 5-year and 15-year hoarding assumptions. [...] It should also be stressed that these figures do not take collection of secondary consumer batteries through other sources into account, and actual collection rates are likely higher than these values."[47]

A November 2011 The New York Times article reported that batteries collected in the United States are increasingly being transported to Mexico for recycling as a result of a widening gap between the strictness of environmental and labor regulations between the two countries.[48] [10]

In 2015, Energizer announced availability of disposable AAA and AA alkaline batteries made with 3.8% to 4% (by weight) of recycled batteries, branded as EcoAdvanced.[49] [50]

Japan [edit]

Japan does not have a single national battery recycling law, so the advice given is to follow local and regional statutes and codes in disposing batteries. The Battery Association of Japan (BAJ) recommends that alkaline, zinc-carbon, and lithium primary batteries can be disposed of as normal household waste.[51] The BAJ's stance on button cell and secondary batteries is toward recycling and increasing national standardisation of procedures for dealing with these types of batteries.[52]

In April 2004, the Japan Portable Rechargeable Battery Recycling Center (JBRC) was created to handle and promote battery recycling throughout Japan. They provide battery recycling containers to shops and other collection points.[53]

India [edit]

India is one of the world's chief consumers of lead-acid batteries, according to the India Lead Zinc Development Association (ILZDA).[54] India, with its recent rapid rise in average wealth, has seen a marked increase in motor vehicles, and a corresponding increase in lead-acid battery recycling.

India lacks a formal planned recycling industry. The industry is not respected, and lacks designated zones for recycling. However, in a nation with a vast population of people still in poverty, most lead-acid battery recycling is by individuals and small informal enterprises, often taking no safety or environmental precautions.[54] [10] [55]

ILZDA has demanded multiple changes to India's industry and its regulation, including the registration of all battery dealers, and the collection of their returns, and recognition of the best-registered recyclers, while enforcing punishments for violators of government regulations.[54]

Two of India's largest lead companies -- lead manufacturer/exporter Gravita India and lead battery manufacturer Amara Raja -- partnered to annually recycle 8,000 tonnes of lead scrap from Amara Raja's facilities, and return it to them for re-use (Gravita said it can recycle and process up to 50,000 tonnes of lead and aluminium yearly). The companies said the joint program is to advance environment protection and sustainability.[56]

See also [edit]

  • Electronic waste
  • WEEE directive (Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment)
  • Battery (electricity)
  • Rechargeable battery

References [edit]

  1. ^ Bernardes, A. M.; Espinosa, D. C. R.; Tenorio, J. A. S. (3 May 2004). "Recycling of batteries: a review of current processes and technologies". Journal of Power Sources. 130 (1–2): 291–298. Bibcode:2004JPS...130..291B. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2003.12.026. ISSN 0378-7753.
  2. ^ Battery recycling in USA, United States Environmental Protection Agency, archived from the original on 25 February 2004, retrieved 9 September 2008
  3. ^ "Battery Care, Use, and Disposal". Duracell. 2016. Retrieved 26 July 2018. Our alkaline batteries are composed primarily of common metals – steel, zinc, and manganese – and do not pose a health or environmental risk during normal use or disposal. We have voluntarily eliminated all of the added mercury from our alkaline batteries since the early 1990s .... Therefore, alkaline batteries can be safely disposed of with normal household waste, everywhere [in the U.S.] but California.
  4. ^ "Lead-Acid Batteries". Retrieved 21 June 2020.
  5. ^ "Battery Council" (PDF). Battery Council.
  6. ^ "Conclusions" in The Impacts of Lead Industry Economics and Hazardous Waste Regulations on Lead-Acid Battery Recycling: Revision and Update,, September 1987, prepared for the Office of Policy Analysis, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, by Putnam, Hayes & Bartlett, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts, (also at [1]) retrieved May 15, 2021
  7. ^ a b c "Engineering Bulletin: Selection of Control Technologies for Remediation of Lead Battery Recycling Sites", September 1992, Superfund: EPA/540/S-95/011, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, (also at: [2]) retrieved May 15, 2021
  8. ^ "Other Nonferrous Metals Material-Specific Data" in Facts and Figures about Materials, Waste and Recycling, October 2020, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, retrieved May 15, 2021 (a linked methodology addendum noted "Using data from industrial associations, key businesses and similar industry sources, as well as government sources such as the Department of Commerce and the U.S. Census Bureau, EPA estimates the tons of materials generated, recycled, composted or sent to combustion facilities and landfills.")
  9. ^ Ericson, Bret; Howard Hu; Emily Nash; Greg Ferraro; Julia Sinitsky; Mark Patrick Taylor: "Blood lead levels in low-income and middle-income countries: a systematic review,", March 2021 The Lancet Planetary Health, of The Lancet, DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(20)30278-3•, as cited in "Pure Earth, USC and Macquarie University Publish Landmark Lead Study in The Lancet Planetary Health Journal," The Pollution Blog, Pure Earth, retrieved May 15, 2021
  10. ^ a b c d e f Pearce, Fred: "Getting the Lead Out: Why Battery Recycling Is a Global Health Hazard," November 2, 2020, Yale Environment 360, Yale School of the Environment, Yale University, retrieved May 15, 2021
  11. ^ Ballantyne, Andrew D.; Jason P. Hallett; D. Jason Riley; Nilay Shah; and David J. Payne: "Lead acid battery recycling for the twenty-first century", R Soc Open Sci. 2018 May; 5(5): 171368, Royal Society Open Science, posted on the NCBI site of the U.S. National Institutes of Health, PMCID: PMC5990833, PMID: 29892351, doi: 10.1098/rsos.171368, retrieved May 15, 2021
  12. ^ Hung, Yung-Tse; Wang, Lawrence K.; Wang, Mu-Hao S.; Shammas, Nazih K.; Chen, Jiaping Paul (31 July 2017). Waste Treatment in the Service and Utility Industries. CRC Press. ISBN978-1-351-67340-2.
  13. ^ Harper, Gavin; Sommerville, Roberto; Kendrick, Emma; Driscoll, Laura; Slater, Peter; Stolkin, Rustam; Walton, Allan; Christensen, Paul; Heidrich, Oliver; Lambert, Simon; Abbott, Andrew; Ryder, Karl; Gaines, Linda; Anderson, Paul (2019). "Recycling lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles". Nature. 575 (7781): 75–86. Bibcode:2019Natur.575...75H. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1682-5. PMID 31695206.
  14. ^ a b Burkert, Andreas (1 September 2018). "Effective Recycling of Electric-vehicle Batteries". ATZ Worldwide. 120 (9): 10–15. doi:10.1007/s38311-018-0139-z. ISSN 2192-9076. S2CID 134968969.
  15. ^ a b c Elwert, Tobias; Römer, Felix; Schneider, Kirstin; Hua, Qingsong; Buchert, Matthias (2018), Pistoia, Gianfranco; Liaw, Boryann (eds.), "Recycling of Batteries from Electric Vehicles", Behaviour of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electric Vehicles: Battery Health, Performance, Safety, and Cost, Green Energy and Technology, Springer International Publishing, pp. 289–321, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-69950-9_12, ISBN9783319699509
  16. ^ a b c Hanisch, Christian; Diekmann, Jan; Stieger, Alexander; Haselrieder, Wolfgang; Kwade, Arno (2015). "27". In Yan, Jinyue; Cabeza, Luisa F.; Sioshansi, Ramteen (eds.). Handbook of Clean Energy Systems – Recycling of Lithium-Ion Batteries (5 Energy Storage ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 2865–2888. doi:10.1002/9781118991978.hces221. ISBN9781118991978.
  17. ^ a b Hanisch, Christian. "Recycling of Lithium-Ion Batteries" (PDF). Presentation on Recycling of Lithium-Ion Batteries. Lion Engineering GmbH. Retrieved 22 July 2015.
  18. ^ Dilba, Denis (July 2019). "Auf dem Weg zum Öko-Akku". Technology Review. 7/2019: 28.
  19. ^ "Derfor er det vanskelig å resirkulere elbilbatterier". Teknisk Ukeblad. 1 December 2016. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
  20. ^ Kijk magazine, 2/2017
  21. ^ Field, Kyle (7 June 2018). "Yes, Tesla Recycles All Of Its Spent Batteries & Wants To Do More In The Future". CleanTechnica.
  22. ^ "Can Electric Car Batteries Be Recycled?". HowStuffWorks. 6 December 2011.
  23. ^ "How Electric Vehicle Batteries Are Reused or Recycled". 23 July 2018.
  24. ^ "Litiumet i batterierna går förlorat". Ny Teknik. 13 February 2017. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
  25. ^ "Ny metode kan gjøre gjenvinning av litium fra elbilbatterier lønnsom". Teknisk Ukeblad. 23 February 2017. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
  26. ^ "Application of Life-Cycle Assessment to Nanoscale Technology: Lithium-ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles" (PDF).
  27. ^ Lu, Junnan; Stevens, Geoff W.; Mumford, Kathryn A. (1 December 2021). "Development of heterogeneous equilibrium model for lithium solvent extraction using organophosphinic acid". Separation and Purification Technology. 276: 119307. doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2021.119307. ISSN 1383-5866.
  28. ^ a b Castelvecchi, Davide (17 August 2021). "Electric cars and batteries: how will the world produce enough?". Nature. 596 (7872): 336–339. Bibcode:2021Natur.596..336C. doi:10.1038/d41586-021-02222-1. PMID 34404944. S2CID 237198496.
  29. ^ Buchert, Matthias (14 December 2016). "Aktualisierte Ökobilanzen zum Recyclingverfahren LithoRec II für Lithium-Ionen-Batterien" (PDF).
  30. ^ Fisher, Karen; Wallén, Erika; Laenen, Pieter Paul; Collins, Michael (18 October 2006), Battery Waste Management: Life Cycle Assessment (PDF), Environmental Resources Management, archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2013
  31. ^ a b "Implementation Resources for Spent Lead-Acid Battery Exporters," in "Wastes - Hazardous Waste - International Waste Activities," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, retrieved May 15, 2021
  32. ^ a b "EU agrees battery recycling law". BBC Online. 3 May 2006. Retrieved 22 October 2010.
  33. ^ Numbers actually for years "before 2008" and "now", (that is, 2017), from http://yle.fi/uutiset/3-6434741 (in Finnish). The change is related to large grocery stores being obligated to accept used batteries from consumers.
  34. ^ Date, Will (19 September 2012). "UK 'on course' to meet first battery collection target". letsrecycle.com.
  35. ^ [3] Waste & Resources Action Programme
  36. ^ [4] Household Battery Collection Trials April 2005 – March 2008 Final report
  37. ^ Guardian Newspaper Online, Leo Hickman 13-12-2007. Battery Recycling and Ethical Living. Retrieved 9 September 2008.
  38. ^ http://www2.sainsburys.co.uk/YourIdeas/forums/10060/ShowThread.aspx Archived 28 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine Sainsbury's help centre.
  39. ^ Department for Environment, Food, and Rural affairs, 18 December 2009 Archived 12 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Defra, UK – Environmental Protection – Recycling and waste.
  40. ^ [5] Archived 8 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine Q&A Batteries programme
  41. ^ Directgov, 22 January 2010 Archived 15 October 2012 at the UK Government Web Archive. Recycling batteries: Directgov – Environment and greener living.
  42. ^ Info on store takeback Archived 21 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Press article from 'Register Hardware 27 October 2006. Retrieved 9 September 2008.
  43. ^ Info on recycling. WRAP – "RecycleNow" National Recycling Campaign for England. Retrieved 24 January 2020.
  44. ^ "Call2Recycle | United States".
  45. ^ EPA,OSWER,ORCR, US (10 August 2015). "Sustainable Materials Management – US EPA". US EPA . Retrieved 23 April 2018. CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  46. ^ RIS International Ltd. (February 2007). Canadian Consumer Battery Baseline Study: Final Report (PDF) (Report). Environment Canada. "Table 4.11: Recycling Rate Estimates for Secondary Batteries", on page 27 (PDF page 40). Retrieved 15 March 2012.
  47. ^ "Battery Recycling in Canada 2009 Update: Executive Summary: 4. Battery Recycling". Environment Canada. 2009. Retrieved 15 March 2012.
  48. ^ Rosenthal, Elisabeth; Lehren, Andrew W.; Zabludovsky, Karla; Agren, David (8 December 2011), "Lead From Old U.S. Batteries Sent to Mexico Raises Risks", The New York Times, nytimes.com, retrieved 10 December 2011
  49. ^ reports, Tribune wire. "Energizer debuts recycled AA and AAA batteries". chicagotribune.com . Retrieved 23 April 2018.
  50. ^ "Energizer EcoAdvanced Recycled Batteries". www.energizer.com . Retrieved 23 April 2018.
  51. ^ [6] Dry batteries and lithium primary batteries-BAJ
  52. ^ [7] Recycling portable rechargeable batteries-BAJ
  53. ^ [8] JBRC Homepage – Google webcache
  54. ^ a b c Slingal, Nidhi:"Urgent need of safe disposal, green recycling of lead batteries, says lead zinc association," March 18, 2021, Business Today (India), retrieved May 15, 2021
  55. ^ "Two of India's largest lead firms sign recycling deal," May 23, 2018, Batteries International, retrieved May 15, 2021

Further reading [edit]

  • G. Pistoia, J.-P. Wiaux and S.P. Wolsky, ed. (2001). Used battery collection and recycling. Industrial Chemistry Library, Volume 10. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science. ISBN978-0-444-50562-0.

External links [edit]

  • Battery recycling at Curlie
  • "Taking Batteries Green", ECN Magazine article from 2010

How Much of a Car Battery Can Be Recycled

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_recycling

0 Response to "How Much of a Car Battery Can Be Recycled"

Post a Comment

Iklan Atas Artikel

Iklan Tengah Artikel 1

Iklan Tengah Artikel 2

Iklan Bawah Artikel